|
Clinical Studies
TOP
Clinical Studies on the use and effects of
Ionized Alkaline (Reduced) Water
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ionized Alkaline
(Reduced) Water Study Abstracts
Influences of alkaline ionized
water on milk yield, body weight of offspring and perinatal dam in rats.
J Toxicol Sci. 1998 Dec;23(5):365-71. Watanabe T ,
Pan I , Fukuda Y , Murasugi E
, Kamata H , Uwatoko K .
Department of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry, College of Bioresource
Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan.
The authors previously reported that male offspring of mothers rats
given alkaline ionized water (AKW) showed a significantly higher body
weight by day 14 after birth than did offspring of mother rats given tap
water (TPW); furthermore, marked myocardial necrosis and fibrosis were
observed particularly in the former male offspring at the age of 15
weeks. In the present experiment we looked for differences in
bioparameters, namely the milk yield of mothers and suckled milk volume
of the offspring, between the AKW- and the TPW-treated groups in order
to reveal the factors which cause the unusual body weight gain in the
offspring. Even though we were able to repeat our previous observation
(the body weight of the male offspring of the AKW group increased
significantly more by day 14 and 20 after birth and of the female by day
20 after birth than did that of the TPW group (p < 0.05), no significant
difference was noted in any of the bioparameters, including those
related to milk production and consumption. It is thus suspected that
the water-hydrated cation, which was transferred either to the fetus
through the placenta or to the offspring through the milk, might be the
cause of the unusual body weight increase. Since calcium plays an
important role in skeletal formation, it is tentatively concluded that
the higher calcium concentration of AKW enriched the mother, serum
calcium which was transferred to the fetus through the placenta and to
the offspring through the milk.
PMID: 9922938 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Effect of alkaline
ionized water on reproduction in gestational and lactational rats.
J Toxicol Sci. 1995 May;20(2):135-42. Watanabe T .
Department of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry, College of Agriculture
and Veterinary Medicine, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan.
Alkaline ionized water (AKW) produced by electrolysis was given to
gestational and lactational rats, and its effect on dams, growth of
fetuses and offsprings were investigated. The results showed that the
intake of food and water in dams increased significantly when AKW was
given from the latter half of the gestation period and from the former
half of the lactation period. Body weight of the offsprings in the test
group, both males and females, increased significantly from the latter
half of the lactation period. During the lactation period and after
weaning, the offsprings in the test group showed significantly hastened
appearance of abdominal hair, eruption of upper incisors, opening of
eyelids and other postnatal morphological developments both in males and
females, as well as earlier separation of auricle and descent of testes
in males compared with the control was noted. As mentioned above, it was
suggested from the observations conducted that the AKW has substantial
biological effects on postnatal growth, since intake of food and water
and body weight of the offsprings increased and postnatal morphological
development was also accelerated.
PMID: 7473891 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Impact of extra waters on immunosystem in mice
Wei Sheng Yan Jiu. 2004 Jul;33(4):422-5. [Article in Chinese]
Li Y , Han C , Li Y ,
Li Y , Zhao X , Zhong K
, Chen T , Zhang M ,
Fan F , Tao Y , Ji R .
Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chinese Center for Disease
Control and Prevention, Beijing 100021, China.
OBJECTIVE: To study impact of extra waters on immunosystem in
mice-alkaline ionized water, mineralecology water, activated water, and
pure water. METHODS: According to Function Assessment and Experiment for
Function Food, 1996, the ratio of spain and body weight, the ratio of
thymus and body weight, the delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH), the phagocytosing functions by cock RBC, the plaque forming cell (PFC) and
HC50 testing were assessment with 120 male Balb/c mice of 17.8 - 23.3 g
(group I), the mice were divided into four group, and drank daily the
four kinds of waters respectively until 50 days. The lymph cell
transformation by ConA and NK cell activity were assessment with
otherl20 male Balb/c mice of 17.8 - 23.3 g (group II), the mice were
divided into four group and drank daily the four kinds of waters
respectively until 50 days. The phagocytosing functions by carbon powder
were assessment with other 120 female Balb/c mice of 16.7 - 22.0 g
(group III) were divided into four group and drank daily the four kinds
of waters respectively until 50 days. The data were statisticed by Stata
soft. RESULTS: Other three waters compared with the pure water: (1)
Alkaline ionized water and activated water can alleviate the body weight
increase of male Balb/c mouse (P < 0.01 & P < 0.05), but alkaline
ionized water, mineral-ecology water, activated water don't impact on
the female Balb/c mouse body weight (P > 0.05). (2) Activated water can
remarkly increase the ratio of thymus and body weight (P < 0.05), and
increase the phagocytosing ability by cock RBC (P < 0.01), and increase
the NK cell activity (P < 0.01). (3) The three extra waters don't impact
on othe items for the Balh/c mouce. CONCLUSION: The study must be
continued to impact on immunosystem in mice for extra waters.
PMID: 15461264 [PubMed - in process]
TOP
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Selective stimulation of
the growth of anaerobic microflora in the human intestinal tract by
electrolyzed reducing water.
Med Hypotheses. 2005;64(3):543-6. Vorobjeva NV .
Department of Physiology of Microorganisms, Biology Faculty, Lomonosov
Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia. nvvorobjeva@mail.ru
96-99% of the "friendly" or residential microflora of intestinal tract
of humans consists of strict anaerobes and only 1-4% of aerobes. Many
diseases of the intestine are due to a disturbance in the balance of the
microorganisms inhabiting the gut. The treatment of such diseases
involves the restoration of the quantity and/or balance of residential
microflora in the intestinal tract. It is known that aerobes and
anaerobes grow at different oxidation-reduction potentials (ORP). The
former require positive E(h) values up to +400 mV. Anaerobes do not grow
unless the E(h) value is negative between -300 and -400 mV. In this
work, it is suggested that prerequisite for the recovery and maintenance
of obligatory anaerobic microflora in the intestinal tract is a negative
ORP value of the intestinal milieu. Electrolyzed reducing water with E(h)
values between 0 and -300 mV produced in electrolysis devices possesses
this property. Drinking such water favours the growth of residential
microflora in the gut. A sufficient array of data confirms this idea.
However, most researchers explain the mechanism of its action by an
antioxidant properties destined to detox the oxidants in the gut and
other host tissues. Evidence is presented in favour of the hypothesis
that the primary target for electrolyzed reducing water is the
residential microflora in the gut.
PMID: 15617863 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
____________________________________________________________________________________
Water desirable for
health in terms of ORP (oxidation-reduction potential) to pH
relationship
-
Review
PMID: 16180690 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE] Shokuhin Eiseigaku
Zasshi. 2005 Aug;46(4):J228-33. [Article in Japanese]
Okouchi S.
Department of Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Enginnering, Hosei
University, 3-7-2, Kajino-cho, Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184-8584, Japan.
Publication Types:
Review
PMID: 2829704 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
_________________________________________________________________________________
Influences of alkaline
ionized water on milk electrolyte concentrations in maternal rats.
J Toxicol Sci. 2000 Dec;25(5):417-22. Watanabe T ,
Kamata H , Fukuda Y , Murasugi
E , Sato T , Uwatoko K ,
Pan IJ .
Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, College of Bioresource Sciences,
Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-8510, Japan.
We previously reported that body weight on day 14 after birth in male
offspring of rats given alkaline ionized water (AKW) was significantly
heavier than that in offspring of rats given tap water (TPW), but no
significant difference was noted in milk yield and in suckled milk
volume between the two groups. Additionally, the offspring in the AKW
group and TPW group were given AKW and TPW, respectively, at weaning,
and unexpectedly, the necrotic foci in the cardiac muscle were observed
at the 15-week-old age in the AKW group, but not in the TPW group. The
present study was designed to clarify the factors which are involved in
that unusual increase of body weight and occurrence of cardiac necrosis.
Eight dams in each group were given AKW or TPW (control) from day 0 of
gestation to day 14 of lactation. The milk samples were collected on day
14 of lactation and analyzed for concentrations of calcium (Ca), sodium
(Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and chloride (Cl). The AKW and TPW
were also analyzed. Ca, Na and K levels in milk were significantly
higher in the AKW group compared to the TPW group. No significant
difference was noted in the Mg and Cl levels between the two groups.
These data suggested that the Ca cation of AKW enriched the Ca
concentration of the milk and accelerated the postnatal growth of the
offspring of rats given AKW.
PMID: 11201172 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
________________________________________________________________________________
Electrolyzed-reduced
water scavenges active oxygen species and protects DNA from oxidative
damage.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1997 May 8;234(1):269-74.
Shirahata S , Kabayama S ,
Nakano M , Miura T , Kusumoto K
, Gotoh M , Hayashi H ,
Otsubo K , Morisawa S ,
Katakura Y .
Institute of Cellular Regulation Technology, Graduate School of Genetic
Resources Technology, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
sirahata@grt.kyushu-u.ac.jp
Active oxygen species or free radicals are considered to cause extensive
oxidative damage to biological macromolecules, which brings about a
variety of diseases as well as aging. The ideal scavenger for active
oxygen should be 'active hydrogen'. 'Active hydrogen' can be produced in
reduced water near the cathode during electrolysis of water. Reduced
water exhibits high pH, low dissolved oxygen (DO), extremely high
dissolved molecular hydrogen (DH), and extremely negative redox
potential (RP) values. Strongly electrolyzed-reduced water, as well as
ascorbic acid, (+)-catechin and tannic acid, completely scavenged O.-2
produced by the hypoxanthine-xanthine oxidase (HX-XOD) system in sodium
phosphate buffer (pH 7.0). The superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activity
of reduced water is stable at 4 degrees C for over a month and was not
lost even after neutralization, repeated freezing and melting, deflation
with sonication, vigorous mixing, boiling, repeated filtration, or
closed autoclaving, but was lost by opened autoclaving or by closed
autoclaving in the presence of tungsten trioxide which efficiently
adsorbs active atomic hydrogen. Water bubbled with hydrogen gas
exhibited low DO, extremely high DH and extremely low RP values, as does
reduced water, but it has no SOD-like activity. These results suggest
that the SOD-like activity of reduced water is not due to the dissolved
molecular hydrogen but due to the dissolved atomic hydrogen (active
hydrogen). Although SOD accumulated H2O2 when added to the HX-XOD
system, reduced water decreased the amount of H2O2 produced by XOD.
Reduced water, as well as catalase and ascorbic acid, could directly
scavenge H2O2. Reduce water suppresses single-strand breakage of DNA b
active oxygen species produced by the Cu(II)-catalyzed oxidation of
ascorbic acid in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting that reduced water
can scavenge not only O2.- and H2O2, but also 1O2 and .OH.
PMID: 9169001 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
_________________________________________________________________________________
The mechanism of the enhanced
antioxidant effects against superoxide anion radicals of reduced water
produced by electrolysis.
Biophys Chem. 2004 Jan 1;107(1):71-82.
Hanaoka K , Sun D , Lawrence R
, Kamitani Y , Fernandes G .
Bio-REDOX Laboratory Inc. 1187-4, Oaza-Ueda, Ueda-shi, Nagano-ken
386-0001, Japan. hanak@rapid.ocn.ne.jp
We reported that reduced water produced by electrolysis enhanced the
antioxidant effects of proton donors such as ascorbic acid (AsA) in a
previous paper. We also demonstrated that reduced water produced by
electrolysis of 2 mM NaCl solutions did not show antioxidant effects by
itself. We reasoned that the enhancement of antioxidant effects may be
due to the increase of the ionic product of water as solvent. The ionic
product of water (pKw) was estimated by measurements of pH and by a
neutralization titration method. As an indicator of oxidative damage,
Reactive Oxygen Species- (ROS) mediated DNA strand breaks were measured
by the conversion of supercoiled phiX-174 RF I double-strand DNA to open
and linear forms. Reduced water had a tendency to suppress single-strand
breakage of DNA induced by reactive oxygen species produced by H2O2/Cu
(II) and HQ/Cu (II) systems. The enhancement of superoxide anion radical
dismutation activity can be explained by changes in the ionic product of
water in the reduced water.
PMID: 14871602 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
________________________________________________________________________
Protective mechanism of reduced
water against alloxan-induced pancreatic beta-cell damage: Scavenging
effect against reactive oxygen species
Authors: Li Y.1; Nishimura T.1; Teruya K.1; Maki T.1; Komatsu T.1;
Hamasaki T.1; Kashiwagi T.1; Kabayama S.2; Shim S-Y.1; Katakura Y.1;
Osada K.1; Kawahara T.1; Otsubo K.2; Morisawa S.2; Ishii Y.3; Gadek Z.4;
Shirahata S.5
Source: Cytotechnology, Volume 40, Numbers 1-3, 2002, pp. 139-149(11)
Publisher: Springer
Abstract:
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) cause irreversible damage to biological
macromolecules, resulting in many diseases. Reduced water (RW) such as
hydrogen-rich electrolyzed reduced water and natural reduced waters like
Hita Tenryosui water in Japan and Nordenau water in Germany that are
known to improve various diseases, could protect a hamster pancreatic
beta cell line, HIT-T15 from alloxan-induced cell damage. Alloxan, a
diabetogenic compound, is used to induce type 1 diabetes mellitus in
animals. Its diabetogenic effect is exerted via the production of ROS.
Alloxan-treated HIT-T15 cells exhibited lowered viability, increased
intracellular ROS levels, elevated cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration,
DNA fragmentation, decreased intracellular ATP levels and lowering of
glucose-stimulated release of insulin. RW completely prevented the
generation of alloxan-induced ROS, increase of cytosolic Ca2+
concentration, decrease of intracellular ATP level, and lowering of
glucose-stimulated insulin release, and strongly blocked DNA
fragmentation, partially suppressing the lowering of viability of
alloxan-treated cells. Intracellular ATP levels and glucose-stimulated
insulin secretion were increased by RW to 2–3.5 times and 2–4 times,
respectively, suggesting that RW enhances the glucose-sensitivity and
glucose response of beta-cells. The protective activity of RW was stable
at 4 °C for over a month, but was lost by autoclaving. These results
suggest that RW protects pancreatic beta-cells from alloxan-induced cell
damage by preventing alloxan-derived ROS generation. RW may be useful in
preventing alloxan-induced type 1-diabetes mellitus.
Affiliations: 1: Department of Genetic Resources Technology, Faculty of
Agriculture, Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka,
Japan 2: Nihon Trim Co. Ltd., 1-8-34 Oyodonaka, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan 3:
Hita Tenryosui Co. Ltd., 647 Nakanoshima, Hita, Oita, Japan 4: Center
for Holistic Medicine and Naturopathy, Schmallenberg-Nordenau, Germany
5: Department of Genetic Resources Technology, Faculty of Agriculture,
Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan (Author
for correspondence; E-mail: sirahata@grt.kyushu-u.ac.jp; Fax: +81 92 642
3052)
TOP
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Electrolyzed hydrogen-saturated
water for drinking use elicits an antioxidative effect: a feeding test
with rats.
Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2005 Oct;69(10):1985-7
Yanagihara T, Arai K, Miyamae K, Sato B, Shudo T, Yamada M, Aoyama M.
MiZ Co., Ltd., Fujisawa-shi, Kanagawa, Japan.
A new type of electrolyzed hydrogen-saturated (EHS) water was produced
using a water-electrolyzing device equipped with a special cation
exchanger. Use of the EHS water for drinking in a feeding test with rats
elicited an antioxidative effect. After intraperitoneal injection of
2,2-azobis-amidinopropane dihydrochloride, urinary secretion of
8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine and hepatic formation of peroxidized lipid were
significantly lessened in rats which had received the EHS water for one
week. These results suggest the possibility that this drinking water
shows an effect in reduction of oxidative stress in the body.
PMID: 16244454 [PubMed - in process]
TOP
_____________________________________________________________
[Editors note: following two studies are not about ionized water, but
about effects of increrasing alkaline minerals JK]
Effects of supplementing of calcium,
iron and zinc on women's health during pregnancy
Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2001 Nov;35(6):365-9. [Article in
Chinese]
An H, Yin S, Xu Q.
Department of Maternal and Child Nutrition, Institute of Nutrition and
Food Hygiene, Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine, Beijing 100050,
China.
OBJECTIVES: To determine the effects of supplementing biscuits fortified
with calcium (Ca) and vitamin D (VD), iron (Fe), vitamin C (VC) and zinc
(Zn) to pregnant women from the 5th month of gestation until delivery on
their health, and to explore a way to improve their Ca, Fe and Zn
nutritional status during pregnancy. METHODS: A total of 313 healthy and
primary pregnant women were enrolled and divided into five study groups
based on their order visiting the hospitals for prenatal care. Each
woman of the study groups was given three pieces of biscuit fortified
with VD, Ca and VD, Ca, Zn and VD (Ca + Zn + VD), Ca, Fe, VC and VD (Ca
+ Fe + VD), Ca, Fe, VC, Zn and VD (Ca + Fe + Zn + VD), respectively,
from the 15th month of gestation until delivery (24 weeks in total)
daily. The fortified levels were 10 micrograms VD, 400 mg Ca from
carbonate calcium, 10 mg Zn from lactate zinc, 10 mg Fe from ferrous
lactate, and 50 mg VC, respectively. A parturient women was selected
from the same hospital as control after one trial subject for each study
groups selected. RESULTS: The daily dietary intakes of Ca, Zn and Fe in
pregnant women were only 47.7%, 54.7% and 86.7% of the Recommended
Dietary Allowances for Chinese. Incidence of anemia for mid-term
pregnant women was 35.2%, and Fe-supplementation could significantly
improved their hemoglobin level (P < 0.05). Prevalence of anemia in the
groups of Ca + Fe + Zn + VD and Ca + Fe + VD was 35.3% and 40.7%,
respectively, before Fe supplementation and reduced to zero and 4.0%,
respectively, after Fe supplementation. Whereas, prevalence of anemia in
the other groups without Fe supplementation still kept in a relatively
high level. In the groups supplemented with Ca, their plasma Ca level
increased, especially with the best results in Ca + VD group. Plasma
level of Zn declined with length of gestation, which could be improved
by Zn supplementation. Serum level of alkaline phosphatase activity
increased a little bit with length of gestation. There was no
significant difference in radial and ulnar bone mineral density (BMD)
between trial groups and controls two months after delivery. Maternal
radial and ulnar BMD correlated significantly with their dietary Ca
intakes in Ca + VD group. CONCLUSION: The best way to improve maternal
nutritional status is supplementation of Ca + Fe + Zn + VitD, based on
the Recommended Dietary Allowances for Chinese.
PMID: 11840760 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
_____________________________________________________________
Supplementation with alkaline minerals
reduces symptoms in patients with chronic low back pain.
1: J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2001;15(2-3):179-83.
Vormann J, Worlitschek M, Goedecke T, Silver B.
Institut fur Pravention und Ernahrung, Ismaning, Germany.
vormann@ipev.de
The cause of low back pain is heterogeneous, it has been hypothesised
that a latent chronic acidosis might contribute to these symptoms. It
was tested whether a supplementation with alkaline minerals would
influence symptoms in patients with low back pain symptoms. In an open
prospective study 82 patients with chronic low back pain received daily
30 g of a lactose based alkaline multimineral supplement (Basica) over a
period of 4 weeks in addition to their usual medication. Pain symptoms
were quantified with the "Arhus low back pain rating scale" (ARS). Mean
ARS dropped highly significant by 49% from 41 to 21 points after 4 weeks
supplemention. In 76 out of 82 patients a reduction in ARS was achieved
by the supplementation. Total blood buffering capacity was significantly
increased from 77.69 +/- 6.79 to 80.16 +/- 5.24 mmol/L (mean +/- SEM, n
= 82, p < 0.001) and also blood pH rose from 7.456 +/- 0.007 to 7.470
+/- 0.007 (mean +/- SEM, n = 75, p < 0.05). Only intracellular magnesium
increased by 11% while other intracellular minerals were not
significantly changed in sublingual tissue as measured with the EXA-test.
Plasma concentrations of potassium, calcium, iron, copper, and zinc were
within the normal range and not significantly influenced by the
supplementation. Plasma magnesium was slightly reduced after the
supplemenation (-3%, p < 0.05). The results show that a disturbed
acid-base balance may contribute to the symptoms of low back pain. The
simple and safe addition of an alkaline multimineral preparate was able
to reduce the pain symptoms in these patients with chronic low back
pain.
Publication Types:
*
Clinical Trial
PMID: 11787986 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
_______________________________________________________________________________
CLINICAL STUDIES Reports on Alkaline
(reduced) water
1. Physiological effects of alkaline ionized water:
Effects on metabolites produced by intestinal fermentation
Takashi Hayakawa, Chicko Tushiya, Hisanori Onoda, Hisayo Ohkouchi,
Haruto Tsuge (Gifu University, Faculty of Engineering, Dept. of Food
Science)
"We have found that long-term ingestion of alkaline ionized water (AIW)
reduces cecal fermentation in rats that were given highly fermentable
commercial diet (MF: Oriental Yeast Co., Ltd.). In this experiment, rats
were fed MF and test water (tap water, AIW with pH at 9 and 10) for
about 3 months. Feces were collected on the 57th day, and the rats were
dissected on the 88th day. The amount of ammonium in fresh feces and
cecal contents as well as fecal free-glucose tended to drop down for the
AIW group. In most cases, the amount of free-amino acids in cecal
contents did not differ sign- icantly except for cysteine (decreased in
AIW with pH at 10) and isoleucine (increased in AIW with pH at 10).
Purpose of tests
Alkaline ionized water electrolyzers have been approved for
manufacturing in 1965 by the Ministry of Health and Welfare as medical
equipment to produce medical substances. Alkaline ionized water (AIW)
produced by this equipment is known to be effective against
gastrointestinal fermentation, chronic diarrhea, indigestion and
hyperchylia as well as for controlling gastric acid.
1. This is mainly based on efficacy of the official calcium hydroxide.
2. By giving AIW to rats for a comparatively long time under the
condition of extremely high level of intestinal fermentation, we have
demonstrated that AIW intake is effective for inhibition of intestinal
fermentation when its level is high based on some test results where AIW
worked against cecal hypertrophy and for reduction in the amount of
short-chain fatty acid that is the main product of fermentation.
3. We have reported that this is caused by the synergy between calcium
level generally contained in AIW (about 50ppm) and the value of pH, and
that frequency of detecting some anaerobic bacteria tends to be higher
in alkaline ionized water groups than the other, although the bacteria
count in the intestine does not have significant difference. Based on
these results, we made a judgment that effect of taking AIW supports
part of inhibition mechanism against abnormal intestinal fermentation,
which is one of the claims of efficacy that have been attributed to
alkaline ionized water electrolyzers.
4. On the other hand, under the dietary condition of low intestinal
fermentation, AIW uptake does not seem to inhibit fermentation that
leads us to believe that effect of AIW uptake is characteristic of
hyper-fermentation state. Metabolites produced by intestinal
fermentation include indole and skatole in addition to organic acids
such as short-chain fatty acid and lactic acid as well as toxic
metabolites such as ammonium, phenol and pcresol. We do not know how AIW
uptake would affect the production of these materials. In this
experiment, we have tested on ammonium production as explained in the
following sections.
Testing methods
Four-week-old male Wistar/ST Clean rats were purchased from Japan SLC
Co. Ltd. and were divided into 3 groups of 8 each after preliminary
breeding. AIW of pH 9 and 10 was produced by an electrolyzer Mineone
ROYAL NDX3 1 OH by Omco Co., Ltd. This model produces AIW by
electrolyzing water with calcium lactate added. On the last day of
testing, the rats were dissected under Nembutal anesthesia to take blood
from the heart by a heparin-treated syringe. As to their organs, the
small intestines, cecum and colon plus rectum were taken out from each
of them. The cecurn was weighed and cleaned with physiological saline
after its contents were removed, and the tissue weight was measured
after wiping out moisture. Part of cecal contents was measured its pH,
and the rest was used to assay ammonium concentration. The amount of
ammonium contained in fresh feces and cecal contents was measured by the
Nessler method after collecting it in the extracted samples using
Conway's micro-diffusion container. Fecal free-glucose was assayed by
the oxygen method after extraction by hot water. Analysis of free amino
acids contained in cecal contents was conducted by the Waters PicoTag
amino acid analysis system.
Test results and analyses
No difference was found in the rats' weight gain, water and feed intake
and feeding efficiency, nor was any particular distinction in appearance
identified. The length of the small intestines and colon plus rectum
tended to decline in AIW groups.
PH value of cecal contents was higher and the amount of fecal
free-glucose tended to be lower in AIW groups than the control group.
Since there was no difference in fecal discharge itself, the amount of
free-glucose discharged per day was at a low level.
The amount of discharged free-glucose in feces is greater when
intestinal fermentation is more intensive, which indicates that
intestinal fermentation is more inhibited in AIW groups than the control
group.
Ammonium concentration in cecal contents tends to drop down in AIW
groups (Fig. 1). This trend was most distinctive in case of fresh feces
of one of AIW groups with pH 10 (Fig.2) AIW uptake was found to be
inhibitory against ammonium production. In order to study dynamics of
amino acids in large intestines, we examined free amino acids in the
cecal contents to find out that cysteine level is low in AIW groups
whereas isoleucine level is high in one of AIW groups with pH 10,
although no significant difference was identified for other amino acids.
Bibliography
1. "Verification of Alkaline Ionized Water" by Life Water Institute,
Metamor Publishing Co., 1994, p.46
2. "Official Pharmaceutical Guidelines of Japan, Vol. IT' by Japan
Public Documents Association, Hirokawa PublIshin Co., 1996
3. "Science and Technology of Functional Water" (part) by Takashi
Hayakawa, Haruffito Tsuge, edited by Water Scienll cc Institute, 1999,
pp.109-116
4. "Effective Use of Alkaline Ionized Water" by Takashi Hayakawa,
Haruhito Tsuge, edited by Tetsuji Hc kudou, 25th General Assembly of
Japan Medical Congress 'Tunctional Water in Medical Treatment",
Administratio~ Offices, 1999, pp. 10- 11
TOP
___________________________________________________________
Clinical evaluation of alkaline ionized water for
abdominal complaints: Placebo controlled double blind tests
Hirokazu Tashiro, Tetsuji Hokudo, Hiromi Ono, Yoshihide Fujiyama, Tadao
Baba (National Ohkura Hospital, Dept. of Gastroenterology; Institute of
Clinical Research, Shiga University of Medical Science, Second Dept. of
Internal Medicine
"Effect of alkaline ionized water on abdominal complaints was evaluated
by placebo controlled double blind tests. Overall scores of improvement
using alkaline ionized water marked higher than those of placebo
controlled group, and its effect proved to be significantly higher
especially in slight symptoms of chronic diarrhoea and abdominal
complaints in cases of general malaise. Alkaline ionized water group did
not get interrupted in the course of the test, nor did it show serious
side effects nor abnormal test data. It was confirmed that alkaline
ionized water is safer and more effective than placebos.
Summary
Effect of alkaline ionized water on abdominal complaints was
clinically examined by double blind tests using clean water as placebo.
Overall improvement rate was higher for alkaline ionized water group
than placebo group and the former proved to be significantly more
effective than the other especially in cases of slight symptoms.
Examining improvement rate for each case of chronic diarrhoea,
constipation and abdominal complaints, alkaline ionized water group
turned out to be more effective than placebo group for chronic
diarrhoea, and abdominal complaints.
The test was stopped in one case of chronic diarrhoea, among placebo
group due to exacerbation, whereas alkaline ionized water group did not
stop testing without serious side effects or abnormal test data in all
cases.
It was confirmed that alkaline ionized water is more effective than
clean water against chronic diarrhoea, abdominal complaints and overall
improvement rate (relief of abdominal complaints) and safer than clean
water.
Introduction
Since the approval of alkaline ionized water electrolyzers by
Pharmaceutical Affairs Law in 1966 for its antacid effect and efficacy
against gastrointestinal disorders including hyperchylia, indigestion,
abnormal gastrointestinal fermentation and chronic diarrhoea, they have
been extensively used among patients.
However, medical and scientific evaluation of their validity is not
established. In our study, we examined clinical effect of alkaline
ionized water on gastrointestinal disorders across many symptoms in
various facilities. Particularly, we studied safety and usefulness of
alkaline ionized water by doubleblind tests using clean water as a
control group.
Test subjects and methods
163 patients (34 men, 129 women, age 21 to 72, average 38.6
years old) of indigestion, abnormal gastrointestinal fermentation (with
abnormal gas emission and rugitus) and abdominal complaints caused by
irregular dejection (chronic diarrhoea, or constipation) were tested as
subjects with good informed consent.
Placebo controlled double blind tests were conducted using alkaline
ionized water and clean water at multiple facilities. An alkaline
ionized water electrolyzer sold commercially was installed with a pump
driven calcium dispenser in each of the subject homes. Tested alkaline
ionized water had pH at 9.5 and calcium concentration at 30ppm.
Each subject in placebo group used a water purifier that has the same
appearance as the electrolyzer and produces clean water.
The tested equipment was randomly assigned by a controller who scaled
off the key code which was stored safely until the tests were completed
and the seal was opened again.
Water samples were given to each patient in the amount of 200ml in the
morning with the total of 50Oml or more per day for a month. Before and
after the tests, blood, urine and stool were tested and a log was kept
on the subjective symptoms, bowel movements and accessory symptoms.
After the tests, the results were analyzed based on the log and the test
data.
Conclusion
As a result of double blind clinical tests of alkaline ionized
water and clean water, alkaline ionized water was proved to be more
effective than clean water against chronic diarrhoea, abdominal
complaints (dyspepsia) and overall improvement rate (relief from
abdominal complaints). Also, safety of alkaline ionized water was
confirmed which clinically verifies its usefulness.
TOP
________________________________________________________
Effect of Electrolytic Water
(Ionized Water) Intake on Lifespan of Autoimmune Disease Prone Mice
Research from Texas University
Recent studies on electrolyzed water
indicate that anode or acidic water is most effective as disinfectants;
whereas, reduced or alkaline water processed through cathode is used as
safe drinking water. The present drinking water study was undertaken in
two strains of autoimmune disease prone mice to establish the
spontaneous disease process and longevity. Weanling MRL/lpr and NZBxNZW
[B/W] F1 female mice were provided daily with (1) tap water [pH ~7.5,
oxygen reduction potential (ORP)~600+] (2) electrolyzed water with pH of
~9.0 and ORP ~400- and (3) hyper-reduced water with pH~10.0 and
ORP~600-. Mice were provided H2O and chow diet ad libitum and weekly
body weights and spontaneous deaths were recorded. The mean survival
data recorded as days for MRL/lpr mice [25 mice/group] is as follows:
(1) tap water 235±25, (2) reduced water 287±40 and (3) hyper-reduced
water 346±45 days [<0.05]. In the case of B/W mice [25 mice/group], (1)
tap water 269±16, (2) reduced water 298±19 and (3) hyper-reduced
302±18 days. A significantly decreased (<0.05) serum lipid peroxides
were observed in mice fed hyper-reduced H2O. Also, the source of water
did not alter lymphocyte subsets or their response to mitogens. In
summary, hyper-reduced water with pH~10.0 appears to inhibit autoimmune
disease of MRL/lpr mice whereas only a modest increased lifespan was
noted for B/W mice. The increased lifespan by electrolyzed H2O appears
to be related to the changes in free radicals and antioxidant enzyme
levels. [Supported in part by Zanix Co. and Mr. Waterman Co., Tokyo,
Japan].
Summary:
1. Life long intake of both reduced (pH 9.0) and hyper-reduced (pH 10.0)
water caused no harm to mice compared to tap water.
2. Survival is increased significantly by hyper-reduced water in one
strain (MRL/lpr).
3. Slight increased life span in the other strain (NZBxNZW F1).
3. Reduced and hyper-reduced water appears to increase T cell numbers,
and decrease B cells.
4. Both reduced and hyper-reduced water appears to increase antioxidant
mRNA levels.
5. New clinical and animal studies are needed to confirm above results.
TOP
_______________________________________________________
Physiological effects of alkaline
ionized water: Effects on metabolites produced by intestinal
fermentation
by Takashi Hayakawa, Chicko Tushiya, Hisanori Onoda, Hisayo Ohkouchi,
Harul-~to Tsuge (Gifu University, Faculty of Engineering, Dept. of Food
Science)
We have found that long-term ingestion of alkaline ionized water (AIW)
reduces cecal fermentation in rats that were given highly fermentable
commercial diet (MF: Oriental Yeast Co., Ltd.). In this experiment, rats
were fed MF and test water (tap water, AIW with pH at 9 and 10) for
about 3 months. Feces were collected on the 57th day, and the rats were
dissected on the 88th day. The amount of ammonium in fresh feces and
cecal contents as well as fecal free-glucose tended to drop down for the
AIW group. In most cases, the amount of free-amino acids in cecal
contents did not differ sign- icantly except for cysteine (decreased in
AIW with pH at 10) and isoleucine (increased in AIW with pH at 10).
Purpose of tests
Alkaline ionized water electrolyzers have been approved for
manufacturing in 1965 by the Ministry of Health and Welfare as medical
equipment to produce medical substances. Alkaline ionized water (AIW)
produced by this equipment is known to be effective against
gastrointestinal fermentation, chronic diarrhea, indigestion and
hyperchylia as well as for controlling gastric acid.*1 This is mainly
based on efficacy of the official calcium hydroxide. *2 By giving AIW to
rats for a comparatively long time under the condition of extremely high
level of intestinal fermentation, we have demonstrated that AIW intake
is effective for inhibition of intestinal fermentation when its level is
high based on some test results where AIW worked against cecal
hypertrophy and for reduction in the amount of short-chain fatty acid
that is the main product of fermentation.*3 We have reported that this
is caused by the synergy between calcium level generally contained in
AIW (about 50ppm) and the value of pH, and that frequency of detecting
some anaerobic bacteria tends to be higher in alkaline ionized water
groups than the other, although the bacteria count in the intestine does
not have significant difference. Based on these results, we made a
judgment that effect of taking AIW supports part of inhibition mechanism
against abnormal intestinal fermentation, which is one of the claims of
efficacy that have been attributed to alkaline ionized water
electrolyzers. *4 On the other hand, under the dietary condition of low
intestinal fermentation, AIW uptake does not seem to inhibit
fermentation that leads us to believe that effect of AIW uptake is
characteristic of hyper-fermentation state. Metabolites produced by
intestinal fermentation include indole and skatole in addition to
organic acids such as short-chain fatty acid and lactic acid as well as
toxic metabolites such as ammonium, phenol and pcresol. We do not know
how AIW uptake would affect the production of these materials. In this
experiment, we have tested on ammonium production as explained in the
following sections.
Testing methods
Four-week-old male Wistar/ST Clean rats were purchased from Japan SLC
Co., Ltd. and were divided into 3 groups of 8 each after preliminary
breeding. AIW of pH 9 and 10 was produced by an electrolyzer Mineone
ROYAL NDX3 1 OH by Omco Co., Ltd. This model produces AIW by
electrolyzing water with calcium lactate added. On the last day of
testing, the rats were dissected under Nembutal anesthesia to take blood
from the heart by a heparin-treated syringe. As to their organs, the
small intestines, cecum and colon plus rectum were taken out from each
of them. The cecurn was weighed and cleaned with physiological saline
after its contents were removed, and the tissue weight was measured
after wiping out moisture. Part of cecal contents was measured its pH,
and the rest was used to assay ammonium concentration. The amount of
ammonium contained in fresh feces and cecal contents was measured by the
Nessler method after collecting it in the extracted samples using
Conway's micro-diffusion container. Fecal free-glucose was assayed by
the oxygen method after extraction by hot water. Analysis of free amino
acids contained in cecal contents was conducted by the Waters PicoTag
amino acid analysis system.
Test results and analyses
No difference was found in the rats' weight gain, water and feed intake
and feeding efficiency, nor was any particular distinction in appearance
identified. The length of the small intestines and colon plus rectum
tended to decline in AIW groups. PH value of cecal contents was higher
and the amount of fecal free-glucose tended to be lower in AIW groups
than the control group. Since there was no difference in fecal discharge
itself, the amount of free-glucose discharged per day was at a low
level. The amount of discharged free-glucose in feces is greater when
intestinal fermentation is more intensive, which indicates that
intestinal fermentation is more inhibited in AIW groups than the control
group. Ammonium concentration in cecal contents tends to drop down in
AIW groups (Fig. 1). This trend was most distinctive in case of fresh
feces of one of AIW groups with pH 10 (Fig.2) AIW uptake was found to be
inhibitory against ammonium production. In order to study dynamics of
amino acids in large intestines, we examined free amino acids in the
cecal contents to find out that cysteine level is low in AIW groups
whereas isoleucine level is high in one of AIW groups with pH 10,
although no significant difference was identified for other amino acids.
Bibliography
1. "Verification of Alkaline Ionized Water" by Life Water Institute,
Metamor Publishing Co., 1994, p.46
*2. "Official Pharmaceutical Guidelines of Japan, Vol. IT' by Japan
Public Documents Association, Hirokawa PublIshin Co., 1996
*3. "Science and Technology of Functional Water" (part) by Takashi
Hayakawa, Haruffito Tsuge, edited by Water Scienll cc Institute, 1999,
pp.109-116
*4. 'Tasics and Effective Use of Alkaline Ionized Water" by Takashi
Hayakawa, Haruhito Tsuge, edited by Tetsuji Hc kudou, 25th General
Assembly of Japan Medical Congress 'Tunctional Water in Medical
Treatment", Administratio~ Offices, 1999, pp. 10- 11
TOP
_______________________________________________________
Reduced Water for Prevention of
Diseases
Part paper delivered by Dr Shirahata to the Functional Water Symposium
in Tokyo by Dr.Sanetaka Shirahata, Graduate school of Genetic Resources
Technology, Kyushu University,6-10-1 Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka
812-8581, Japan.
It has long been established that reactive oxygen species (ROS) cause
many types of damage to biomolecules and cellular structures, that, in
turn result in the development of a variety of pathologic states such as
diabetes, cancer and aging. Reduced water is defined as anti-oxidative
water produced by reduction of water.
Electrolyzed reduced water (ERW) has been demonstrated to be
hydrogen-rich water and can scavenge ROS in vitro (Shirahata et al.,
1997). The reduction of proton in water to active hydrogen (atomic
hydrogen, hydrogen radical) that can scavenge ROS is very easily caused
by a weak current, compared to oxidation of hydroxyl ion to oxygen
molecule. Activation of water by magnetic field, collision, minerals
etc. will also produce reduced water containing active hydrogen and/or
hydrogen molecule.
Several natural waters such as Hita Tenryosui water drawn from deep
underground in Hita city in Japan, Nordenau water in Germany and Tlacote
water in Mexico are known to alleviate various diseases. We have
developed a sensitive method by which we can detect active hydrogen
existing in reduced water, and have demonstrated that not only ERW but
also natural reduced waters described above contain active hydrogen and
scavenge ROS in cultured cells. ROS is known to cause reduction of
glucose uptake by inhibiting the insulin-signaling pathway in cultured
cells. Reduced water scavenged intracellular ROS and stimulated glucose
uptake in the presence or absence of insulin in both rat L6 skeletal
muscle cells and mouse 3T3/L1 adipocytes. This insulin-like activity of
reduced water was inhibited by wortmannin that is specific inhibitor of
PI-3 kinase, a key molecule in insulin signaling pathways.
Reduced water protected insulin-responsive cells from sugar toxicity and
improved the damaged sugar tolerance of type 2 diabetes model mice,
suggesting that reduced water may improve insulin-independent diabetes
mellitus.
Cancer cells are generally exposed to high oxidative stress. Reduced
water cause impaired tumor phenotypes of human cancer cells, such as
reduced growth rate, morphological changes, reduced colony formation
ability in soft agar, passage number-dependent telomere shortening,
reduced binding abilities of telomere binding proteins and suppressed
metastasis.
Reduced water suppressed the growth of cancer cells transplanted into
mice, demonstrating their anticancer effects in vivo. Reduced water will
be applicable to not only medicine but also food industries,
agriculture, and manufacturing industries.
[Also see above for Dr.Sanetaka Shirahata paper "
Electrolyzed reduced water scavengers active oxygen species and protects
DNA from oxidative damage " ]
TOP
____________________________________________________________________
Clinical Impovements Obtained
From The Intake Of Reduced Water
Extracts from the Presentation At The Eight Annual
International Symposium On man And His Environment in Health And Disease
on February 24th 1990, at The Grand Kempinski Hotel,
Dalls, Texas, USA by Dr. H. Hayashi, M.D. and Dr. M
Kawamura, M.D ., on:
THE CONCEPT OF PREHEPATIC MEDICINES
Since the introduction of alkaline ionic water in our clinic in 1985, we
have had the following interesting clinical experiences in the use of
this type of water. By the use of alkaline ionic water for drinking and
the preparation of meals for our in-patients, we have noticed :-
-
Declines in blood sugar levels in
diabetic patients.
-
Improvements in peripheral circulation
in diabetic gangrene.
-
Declines in uric acid levels in patients
with gout.
-
Improvements in liver function exams in
hepatic disorders.
-
Improvements in gastroduodenal ulcer and
prevention of their recurrences.
-
Improvements in hypertension and
hypotension.
-
Improvements in allergic disorders such
as asthma, urticaria, rhinites and atopic dermatitis.
-
Improvements in persistent diarrhoea
which occurred after gastrectomy.
-
Quicker improvements in post operative
bower paralysis.
-
Improvements in serum bilirubin levels
in new born babies.
Being confirming clinical improvements, we have always observed changes
of stools of the patients, with the colour of their feaces changing from
black-brown colour to a brigher yellow-brown one, and the odour of their
feaces becoming almost negligible.
The number of patients complaining of constipation also decreased
markedly. The change of stool findings strongly suggests that alkaline
ionic water intake can decrease the production of putrefield or
pathogenic metabolites.
Devices to produce reduced water were introduced into our clinic in May
1985. Based on the clinical experiences obtained in the past 15 years,
it can be said that introduction of electrolyzed-reduced water for
drinking and cooking purpose for in-patients should be the very
prerequisite in our daily medical practices. Any dietary recipe cannot
be a scientific one if property of water is not taken by the patients is
not taken into consideration.
The Ministry of Health and Welfare in Japan announced in 1965 that the
intake of reduced water is effective for restoration of intestinal flora
metabolism.
TOP
____________________________________________________________________
Effects of alkaline ionized water on
formation & maintenance of osseous tissues
by Rei Takahashi Zhenhua Zhang Yoshinori Itokawa
(Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Dept. of Pathology and
Tumor Biology, Fukui Prefectural University)
Effects of calcium alkaline ionized water on formation and maintenance
of osseous tissues in rats were examined. In the absence of calcium in
the diet, no apparent calcification was observed with only osteoid
formation being prominent. Striking differences were found among groups
that were given diets with 30% and 60% calcium. Rats raised by calcium
ionized water showed the least osteogenetic disturbance. Tibiae and
humeri are more susceptible to calcium deficiency than femora. Theses
results may indicate that calcium in drinking water effectively
supplements osteogenesis in case of dietary calcium deficiency. The
mechanism involved in osteoid formation such as absorption rate of
calcium from the intestine and effects of calcium alkaline ionized
drinking water on maintaining bone structure in the process of aging or
under the condition of calcium deficiency is investigated.
Osteoporosis that has lately drawn public attention is defined as
"conditions of bone brittleness caused by reduction in the amount of
bone frames and deterioration of osseous microstructure." Abnormal
calcium metabolism has been considered to be one of the factors to
contribute to this problem, which in turn is caused by insufficient
calcium take in, reduction in enteral absorption rate of calcium and
increase in the amount of calcium in urinal discharge. Under normal
conditions, bones absorb old bones by regular metabolism through osteoid
formation to maintain their strength and function as supporting
structure. It is getting clear that remodeling of bones at the tissue
level goes through the process of activation, resorption, reversal,
matrix synthesis and mineralization. Another important function of bones
is storing minerals especially by coordinating with intestines and
kidneys to control calcium concentration in the blood. When something
happens to this osteo metabolism, it results in abnormal morphological
changes. Our analyses have been focusing mostly on the changes in the
amount of bones to examine effects of calcium alkaline ionized water on
the reaction system of osteo metabolism and its efficiency. Ibis time,
however, we studied it further from the standpoint of histology. In
other words, we conducted comparative studies on morphological and
kinetic changes of osteogenesis by testing alkaline ionized water, tap
water and solution of lactate on rats.
Three week old male Wistar rats were divided into 12 groups by
conditions of feed and drinking water. Feeds were prepared with 0%, 30%,
60% and 100% of normal amount of calcium and were given freely. Three
types of drinking water, tap water (city water, about 6ppm of Ca),
calcium lactate solution (Ca=40ppm) and alkaline ionized water (Ca
=40ppm, pH=9, produced by an electrolyzer NDX 4 LMC by Omco OMC Co.,
Ltd.) were also given keely. Rats' weight, amount of drinking water and
feed as well as the content of Ca in drinking water were assayed every
day. On the 19th and 25th days of testing, tetracycline hydrochloride
was added to the feed for 48 hours so as to bring its concentration to
30mg/kg. On the 30th day, blood samples were taken under Nembutal
anesthesia, and tibiae, humeri and femora were taken out to make non
decalcified samples. Their conditions of osteoid formation and rotation
were observed using Villanueva bone stain and Villanueva goldner stain.
Three groups that were given different types of drinking water and the
same amount of Ca in the feed were compared to find out no significant
difference in the rate of weight gain and intakes of feed and drinking
water. Alkaline ionized water group had significantly greater amount of
tibiae and humeri with higher concentration of calcium in the bones.
The group of 0% calcium in the feed saw drastic increase in the amount
of osteoid. There was not much difference by types of drinking water.
Almost no tetracycline was taken into tibiae and humeri, although a
small amount was identified in ferora. As a result, osteogenesis went as
far as osteoid formation, but it was likely that decalcification has not
happened yet, or most of newly formed bones were absorbed.
As to the groups of 30% and 60% calcium in the feed, increase in the
area of tetracycline take in was more identifiable with higher clarity
in descending order of alkaline ionized water, calcium lactate solution
and tap water groups. Especially in case of tap water group,
irregularity among the areas of tetracycline take in was distinctive.
The group of 100% calcium in the feed saw some improvements in
osteogenesis in descending order of alkaline ionized water, calcium
lactate solution and tap water. In any case, bone formation seemed to be
in good condition at near normal level.
Alkaline ionized water was regarded to be effective for improvements of
osteogenesis under the conditions of insufficient calcium in the feed.
Also, the extent. of dysosteogenesis differed by the region. That is,
tibiae and humeri tend to have more significant dysosteogenesis than
femora.
In addition, there is a possibility that osteo metabolism varies
depending on enteral absorption rate of calcium, adjustment of discharge
from kidneys and functional adjustment of accessory thyroid in the
presence of alkaline ionized water. We are now studying its impact on
calcium concentration in the blood. We are also examining whether it is
possible to deter bone deterioration by testing on fast aging mouse
models.
TOP]
____________________________________________________________________________
Drinking Water Chlorination
Studies
-
References
-
Recent
epidemiological studies
-
Recent
papers on exposure and uptake
-
Recent
studies in laboratory animals
-
Recent review papers
References
1
Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the
Environment (2000). Chlorinated Drinking Water and Reproductive
Outcomes. 1998 Annual Report of the Committees on Toxicity Mutagenicity
Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the
Environment: pp 7-8. London: Department of Health
2
Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and
the Environment (1993). Epidemiology of Chlorinated Drinking Water and
Cancer. 1992 Annual Report of the Committees on Toxicity Mutagenicity
Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the
Environment: pp 55-56 and Correction issued September 1993. London: HMSO
3
Committee on the Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products
and the Environment (2000). Drinking Water. 1999 Annual Report of the
Committees on Toxicity Mutagenicity Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in
Food, Consumer Products and the Environment: pp 59-61. London:
Department of Health
4
Swan SH, Waller K, Hopkins B, Windham G, Fenster L, Schaefer C, Neutra
RR (1998). A prospective study of spontaneous abortion: relation to
amount and source of drinking water consumed in early pregnancy.
Epidemiology ; 9: 126-133
5
Toledano MB, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Bennet J, Best N, Whitaker H, Cockings S,
Fawell J, Jarup L, Briggs DJ, Elliott P (2001). Chlorination
disinfection by products in relation to birthweight in three water areas
in England (unpublished draft)
6
Waller K, Swan SH, DeLorenze G, Hopkins B (1998). Trihalomethanes in
drinking water and spontaneous abortion. Epidemiology ; 9:
134-140
TOP
_______________________________________________________________________________
Recent epidemiological studies
7
Dodds L, King W, Allen AC, Armson BA, Fell DB, Nimrod C (2004).
Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and risk of stillbirth.
Epidemiology ; 15: 179-186
8
Dodds L, King W, Woolcott C, Pole J (1999). Trihalomethanes in public
water supplies and adverse birth outcomes. Epidemiology ; 3:
233-237
9
Fabiani L, Materazzo F, Ensabella F, Giuliani AR, Patacchiola F,
Oleandri V, Leoni V (2003). [Low birth weight, life style of mothers
during pregnancy and chlorinated drinking water]. Ann Ig ; 15:
933-43
10 Gallagher MD, Nuckols JR, Stallones L, Savitz DA. (1998). Exposure to
trihalomethanes and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Epidemiology ;
9: 484-489
11 Jaakkola JJK, Magnus P, Skrondal A, Hwang B-F, Becher G, Dybing E
(2001). Foetal growth and duration of gestation relative to water
chlorination. Occup Environ Med ; 58: 437-442
12 Kallen BAJ, Robert E (2000). Drinking water chlorination and delivery
outcome - a registry-based study in Sweden. Rep Tox; 14; 303-309
13 King WD, Dodds L, Allen AC (2000). Relation between stillbirth and
specific chlorination by-products in public water supply. Env Health
Perspec ; 108; 883-886
14 Righi E, Fantuzzi G, Montanari M, Bargellini A, Predieri G,
Aggazzotti G (2003). [Exposure to water disinfection by-products and
adverse pregnancy outcomes: results of a case-control study carried out
in Modena (Italy).] Ann Ig ; 15: 649-62
15 Toledano MB, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Best N, Whitaker H, Hambly P, de Hoogh
C, Fawell J, Jarup L, Elliott P (2004). Relation of trihalomethane
concentrations in public water supplies to stillbirth and birth weight
in three water regions in England. Env Health Perspec ;
doi:10.1289/ehp.7111.
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2004/7111/abstract.html
16 Waller K, Swan SH, Windham GC, Fenster L (2001). Influence of
exposure assessment methods on risk estimates in an epidemiologic study
of total trihalomethane exposure and spontaneous abortion. J Exp
Anal and Env Epidem ; 11: 522-531
17 Wright JM, Schwartz J, Dockery DW (2003). Effect of trihalomethane
exposure on fetal development. Occup Environ Med ; 60: 173-180
18 Wright JM, Schwartz J, Dockery DW (2004). The effect of disinfection
by-products and mutagenic activity on birth weight and gestational
duration. Env Health Perspec ; 112: 920-5
19 Yang CY (2004). Drinking water chlorination and adverse birth
outcomes in Taiwan. Toxicology ; 198: 249-54
20 Yang C-Y, Cheng B-H, Tsai S-S, Wu T-N, Lin M-C, Lin K-C (2000).
Association between chlorination of drinking water and adverse pregnancy
outcome in Taiwan. Env Health Perspec ; 108; 765-768
TOP
_______________________________________________________________________________
Recent papers on exposure and uptake
21 Backer LC, Ashley DL, Bonin MA, Cardinall FL, Kieszak SM, Wooten JV
(2000). Household exposures to drinking water disinfection by-products:
whole blood trihalomethane levels. J Exp Anal and Env Epidem ;
10: 321-326
22 Lynberg M, Nuckols JR, Langlois P, Ashley D, Singer P, Mendola P,
Wilkes C, Krapfl H, Miles E, Speight V, Lin B, Small L, Miles A, Bonin
M, Zeitz P, Tadkod A, Henry J, Forrester MB (2001). Assessing exposure
to disinfection by-products in women of reproductive age living in
Corpus Christi, Texas and Cobb County, Georgia: Descriptive results and
methods. Envir Health Perspect ; 109: 597-604
23 Miles AM, Singer PC, Ashley DL, Lynberg MC, Mendola P, Langlois P,
Nuckols JR (2002). Comparison of trihalomethanes in tap water and blood.
Environ Sci Technol ; 36: 1692-1698
TOP
______________________________________________________
Recent studies in laboratory animals
24 Bielmeier S, Best DS, Guidici DL, Narotsky MG (2001). Pregnancy loss
in the rat caused by bromodichloromethane. Tox Sci ; 59:
309-315
25 Bielmeier S, Best DS, Narotsky MG (2004). Serum hormone
characterisation and exogenous hormone rescue of
bromodichloromethane-induced pregnancy loss in the F344 rat. Tox Sci
; 77: 101-108
26 Chen J, Douglas GC, Thirkill TL, Lohstroh PN, Bielmeier SR, Narotsky
MG, Best DS, Harrison RA, Natarajan K, Pegram RA, Overstreet JW, Lasley
BL, (2003) Effect of bromodichloromethane on chorionic gonadotrophin
secretion by human placental trophoblast cultures. Tox Sci ;
76: 75-82
27 Chen J, Thirkill TL, Lohstroh PN, Bielmeier SR, Narotsky MG, Best DS,
Harrison RA, Natarajan K, Pegram RA, Overstreet JW, Lasley BL, Douglas
GC (2004). Bromodichloromethane inhibits human placental trophoblast
differentiation. Tox Sci ; 78: 166-174
28 Christian MS, York RG, Hoberman AM, Diener RM, Fisher LC, Gates GA
(2001a). Biodisposition of dibromoacetic acid (DBA) and
bromodichloromethane (BDCM) administered to rats and rabbits in drinking
water during range-finding reproduction and developmental toxicity
studies. Int J Toxicol ; 20: 239-253
29 Christian MS, York RG, Hoberman AM, Diener RM, Fisher LC (2001b).
Oral (drinking water) developmental toxicity studies of
bromodichloromethane (BDCM) in rats and rabbits. Int J Toxicol
; 20: 225-237
30 Christian MS, York RG, Hoberman AM, Fisher LC, Ray Brown W (2002)
Oral (drinking water) two-generation reproductive toxicity study of
bromodichloromethane (BDCM) in rats. Int J Toxicol ; 21:
115-146
TOP
_________________________________________
Recent review papers
31 Bove F, Shim Y, Zeitz P (2002). Drinking water contaminants and
adverse pregnancy outcomes: A review. Env Health Perspec ; 110
(Suppl 1): 61-74
32 Graves CG, Matanoski GM Tardiff RG (2001). Weight of evidence for an
association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and
exposure to disinfection by-products: A critical review. Reg Tox and
Pharm ; 34: 103-124
33 Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Toledano MB, Eaton NE, Fawell J, Elliott P (2000).
Chlorination disinfection by-products in water and their association
with adverse reproductive outcomes. Occup Environ Med ; 57:
73-85
TOP
___________________________________________
E. Pain: a need for paradigm change.
Anticancer Res. 1987 Sep-Oct;7(5B):971-89.
Batmanghelidj F .
Foundation for the Simple in Medicine, Lancaster, PA 17603.
From November 1979 to May 1982, I had the "honor" of serving time at
Evin political prison, Teheran Iran. Evin is the historical prison which
has set the pace of revolution in the country.
At Evin it was discovered that increased regular intake of water
improved the clinical picture of peptic ulcer disease. One of the main
components of this picture was pain of varying severity, sometimes very
severe indeed. Theoretical research to find the physiological reasons
for the observed effect of water, in a condition currently classified as
disease, has revealed a neurotransmitter, an osmoregulator, a water
intake promoter status and a role for histamine.
The action of histamine seems to be coupled to the efficient function of
the cation pumps. Histamine and serotonin are involved in the regulation
of the body's water balance.
Cellular "free water" insufficiency produces a disturbance of tryptophan
metabolism; it is this disturbance and induced functional deficiency
altering the homeostatic balance that produces pain and eventually
tissue transformation and/or damage.
This pain is being introduced as a signal system denoting free water
deficiency of the cell and, therefore, it should be classified as thirst
pain.
Histamine and the reninangiotensin system also coordinate the water
intake and sodium balance of the body. With the induction of
renin-angiotensin system for increase in water intake, threshold rates
for water intake and the threshold rates for raising blood pressure seem
close.
PMID: 2829704 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
___________________________________________
F. Pharmaceutical drugs and Personal Care
Pollutants in water
1. Emerging chemicals of concern:
pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Asia, with
particular reference to Southern China.
Mar Pollut Bull. 2005 Sep;50(9):913-20.
Richardson BJ, Lam PK, Martin M.
Department of Biology and Chemistry, Research Centre for Coastal
Pollution and Conservation, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee
Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong. bhbrucer@cityu.edu.hk
In many western nations, pharmaceuticals and personal care products
(PPCPs) are present in aquatic environments, raising concerns amongst
chemists and toxicologists regarding their potential environmental fates
and effects. However, there are few published reports of PPCPs in
environmental samples from Southeast Asia.
Whilst the environmental toxicology of PPCPs is not well understood,
several effects cause concern, such as feminisation or masculinisation
by hormones and xenoestrogens, synergistic toxicity from complex
mixtures at low concentrations, potential creation of resistant strains
in natural bacterial populations, and other potential concerns for human
health. Whilst both the presence and distributions of PPCPs in Southeast
Asia and China are not well known, observations elsewhere suggest that
they may be important contaminants in the aquatic environment. This is
particularly emphasised by the enormous production and widespread use of
many PPCPs in China, particularly antibiotics utilised in human and
veterinary medicine applications. This Viewpoint presents a general
description of the issue, characterises the current status of PPCP
analyses and reporting in the Southeast Asian region, and proposes a
recommended approach for monitoring and chemical assessment of one group
of PPCPs, antibiotics, in the aquatic environments of Hong Kong and the
Pearl River Delta.
PMID: 16038943 [PubMed - in process]
TOP
___________________________________________
2. Occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals
and personal care products (PPCPs) in biosolids.
J
Environ Qual. 2005 Jan-Feb;34(1):91-104.
Xia K, Bhandari A, Das K, Pillar G.
Department of Crop & Soil Sciences, 3111 Miller Plant Sciences Building,
The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA. kxia@uga.edu
Each year, large quantities of pharmaceuticals and personal care
products (PPCPs) are used worldwide. Once conveyed to wastewater
treatment plants, PPCPs can remain unchanged or undergo partial or
complete transformation during wastewater treatment processes before
discharge into the environment via effluent and biosolids for land
application. Biosolids can be a major sink for some PPCPs. Previous
investigations have indicated that land application of biosolids may be
a potential important route through which PPCPs enter the environment.
However, no information is available on exactly how closely the
concentrations of PPCPs in the environmental media are related to the
land application of PPCP-containing biosolids. This paper reviews
currently available information on the occurrence of PPCPs in biosolids,
methods of analysis, the potential fate of PPCPs in biosolids-applied
soils, and composting as a potential means for removal of PPCPs from
biosolids.
Publication Types:
*
Review
PMID: 15647538 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
___________________________________________
3. Occurrence of pharmaceutical
contaminants and screening of treatment alternatives for southeastern
Louisiana.
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Dec;948:80-9.
Boyd GR, Grimm DA.
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans,
Louisiana 70118, USA. gboyd@tulane.edu
Recent studies conducted in Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Brazil,
Canada, the United States, and elsewhere indicate that low-level
concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal-care products (PPCPs) and
their metabolites may be widespread contaminants in our aquatic
environment. The persistence of pharmaceutical contaminants has been
attributed to (1) human consumption of drugs and subsequent discharges
from sewage treatment plants, and (2) veterinary use of drugs and
nonpoint discharges from agricultural runoff. Contamination of water
resources by these compounds, particularly endocrine disrupting
chemicals (EDCs), is emerging as an international environmental concern.
The long-term effects of continuous, low-level exposure to PPCPs is not
well understood. Preliminary data for raw water samples collected from
the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana, are summarized.
Three PPCP compounds (clofibric acid, naproxen, and estrone) were
analyzed using solid-phase extraction, derivatization, and GC/MS. Batch
experiments also were conducted to determine equilibrium capacity of
activated carbon for clofibric acid. Preliminary results indicate the
occurrence of the selected PPCP contaminants in raw water samples at or
near method-detection limits. For batch equilibrium experiments,
preliminary results indicate that activated carbon potentially can be
used to remove clofibric acid from water. More research is needed to
develop rapid and reliable methods for PPCP analysis and to determine
the effectiveness of treatment processes for removal of PPCP
contaminants in water.
PMID: 11795398 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
TOP
___________________________________________
4. Ecotoxicology of human
pharmaceuticals.
1: Aquat Toxicol. 2005 Oct 26; [Epub ahead of print]
Fent K, Weston AA, Caminada D.
University of Applied Sciences Basel, Institute of Environmental
Technology, St. Jakobs-Strasse 84, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland; Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Department of Environmental
Sciences, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
Low levels of human medicines (pharmaceuticals) have been
detected in many countries in sewage treatment plant (STP) effluents,
surface waters, seawaters, groundwater and some drinking waters.
For some pharmaceuticals effects on aquatic organisms have been
investigated in acute toxicity assays. The chronic toxicity and
potential subtle effects are only marginally known, however. Here, we
critically review the current knowledge about human pharmaceuticals in
the environment and address several key questions.
What kind of pharmaceuticals and what concentrations occur in the
aquatic environment?
What is the fate in surface water and in STP?
What are the modes of action of these compounds in humans and are there
similar targets in lower animals?
What acute and chronic ecotoxicological effects may be elicited by
pharmaceuticals and by mixtures?
What are the effect concentrations and how do they relate to
environmental levels?
Our review shows that only very little is known about long-term effects
of pharmaceuticals to aquatic organisms, in particular with respect to
biological targets. For most human medicines analyzed, acute effects to
aquatic organisms are unlikely, except for spills. For investigated
pharmaceuticals chronic lowest observed effect concentrations (LOEC) in
standard laboratory organisms are about two orders of magnitude higher
than maximal concentrations in STP effluents. For diclofenac, the LOEC
for fish toxicity was in the range of wastewater concentrations, whereas
the LOEC of propranolol and fluoxetine for zooplankton and benthic
organisms were near to maximal measured STP effluent concentrations. In
surface water, concentrations are lower and so are the environmental
risks. However, targeted ecotoxicological studies are lacking almost
entirely and such investigations are needed focusing on subtle
environmental effects. This will allow better and comprehensive risk
assessments of pharmaceuticals in the future.
PMID: 16257063 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
TOP
|
